Appendix.
Remarks on the Geology, Botany, and Zoology of the Highlands of Southern Abyssinia.
Geology.
When the portion of North-eastern Africa that is to form the province of inquiry received its present configuration, the fountains of the deep may be supposed to have opened at once upon a surface, of which the prior quality and condition has become so shut out from human observation, that analogies, drawn from other countries under similar circumstances, must supply this deficiency.
Porphyry forms the general basis of all the different volcanic formations discernible. From the pinnacle of Jebel Goodah, on the Gulf of Arabia, it may be traced, though indistinctly, in the minor outrunners of the Abyssinian Alps, to the province of Efát, where it passes under red sandstone. The principal Shoan range, and the high westerly plateau towards the valley of the Nile, present solely secondary formations, but the porphyry again emerges on the southerly borders in the ranges of Garra Gorphoo and Bulga; whilst the left; bank of the Háwash valley is distinctly of primitive crystalline formation.
The overlying rocks, which seem to have been poured from the centre of this tract, consist of masses of trachyte and columnar basalt, of pyramids of wacke, and beds of lava and tufwacke, with strata of conglomerates and sandstones. The former of these, the trachyte and basalt, belong to the lofty mountains of Abyssinia; whereas wacke, lava, tuffo, and scoria, cover the surface, and form the hills of the desert below; and many districts present volcanoes which, not half a century ago, were in violent activity.
The hills of Mentshar, Efát, and Giddem, are detached ranges, running nearly parallel to the Shoan alps. Disclosing in some few spots the nature of their interior, it appears that immediately over the porphyry lies a red sand-stone, embedding vast quantities of coal, and presenting a true stratification. It consists of minute but quite perfect hexagon dodeca?ders of quartz in a white cement, is very soft, and cleaves sometimes in regular squares. Its depth was not observed to be very great, nor did the overlying formations, a marl and conglomerates, seem to form obstacles to the miner.
The Shoan mountains, of alpine height, exhibit a structure of basalt, wacke, and trachyte; the latter, in all its varieties, surrounds a nucleus of basalt, basaltic wacke, and dolerite. The conglomerates and tuffos at their feet, and partly on their terraces and tops, are of trachytic nature, and sometimes pierced through by small dikes of basalt. Veins of ochre and clay, holes filled with scoria, with intrusions of larger or smaller fragments of various rocks and minerals, and a kind of stratification, are the principal features of this trachytic formation.
When the action began, craters or clefts were formed in the then existing crust of trap-rocks, which in their turn were covered with masses of trachytic lava; a little later, the tuffos and conglomerates were deposited, which prove the importance of augite in their formation by numerous crystals of pyroxen embedded in them. Subsequently new basaltic eruptions either raised these deposits to their present height, or pierced them through in their original sites, both cases occurring on the same locality.
The basalt composing the hills about Ankóber presents no vestige of olivin, nor does it influence the magnetic needle; but a distinction between basalt and greenstone in their finer-grained varieties is difficult; and to determine in words the affinity which they bear to each other in the present instance, the rock might be styled basaltic greenstone. Columns, pentagonal or heptagonal, crown the tops of hills, and seem rather a composition of hornblende than of augite and feldspar. Scoriaceous varieties are found on the outsides of the later protruded masses.
The trachyte is generally a compact mass of grey feldstein, which contains crystals of glassy feldspar, irregularly embedded, and in different quantities. Some varieties are porous, some full of small holes, others black from grains of obsidian; and a few, especially near the dikes, incline to phonolite.
To the westward the ridge terminates in a high plateau, the western Galla provinces of the kingdom. This vast plain is crossed in various directions by hill ranges, the greater part of which do not rise to any considerable height. Here true basalt is disclosed in all the grandeur of its columnar cleavage, but no other species of rock. Deep and narrow ravines carry off the superabundant waters, and pits of tolerable ironstone afford a supply of metal for the manufacture of weapons.
The chief bearing of the mountain chains in Shoa is north and south, with spurs to the west and east. The towering height to which they rise, in a nearly uninterrupted ascent, may be calculated to be from eight to nine thousand feet above the level of the sea, and their single pinnacles far exceed that limit. They are most abrupt, and difficult of access, excepting by the only two passes to the high western plateau. Ravines and chasms of a depth which admits the sun but for few hours, tell of the catastrophe which resulted in their formation. Inaccessible steep cliffs and dismal precipices everywhere line the tiresome footpath of the lonely muleteer.
The hills of Efát present more rounded forms; their slopes are better cultivated, and their tops afford the most eligible positions for the abode of the Abyssinian farmer. During the rainy season, all the many rivers which at other times carry only sufficient water for the purposes of the cultivator, not only fill their deeply-excavated beds, but overflowing and inundating all the lower parts of the hills, would sweep off any of the fragile Abyssinian buildings within reach; but the soil, when saturated with humidity, becomes so heavy and compact as to be not easily washed away. The impetuosity of the mountain torrent undermines the fast-decomposing rock, and frequently brings down large boulders and loose stones, which, dashing against the sides of the ravine, are in no small degree instrumental to its destruction.
Not less important are the changes going on in the high range, since the time of their formation. Ice is of so uncommon occurrence, that we can scarcely attribute to it any considerable cooperation; but the action of water is materially assisted by occasional earthquakes. Gradual decomposition and decay has produced on the base, and produces still, conglomerates of various thickness and extent. The high plateau enjoys a thick coat of fertile black soil. Lakes, pools, morasses, and swamps, are frequent; the rivers of little fall have muddy and miry beds, which on that account become unfordable during the rains.
A few hot mineral wells are known and made use of in Efát and Giddem. Precious metals and precious stones have not yet been discovered; but of useful mineral products, iron, sulphur, and coal, are the principal. Iron ores are the riches of the high plateau, the oxy-hydrate being the best of them. Enclosed in the basalt, it comes to view only in the ravines, whence it is scraped out. From the western borders of the Adel country, and from the extinct volcanoes of Mentshar, is derived the small supply of native sulphur required; the pits are described as exceedingly copious. Coal-beds appear to extend along the whole of the eastern frontier of Shoa; but the combustible nature of the fossil is scarcely known in the country. Copper, tin, zinc, and salt, are all imported into Shoa; the Ada?el possessing the last commodity in abundance. The Shoan clay proves a very indifferent material for the manufacture of earthenware. Excellent quarries could be worked, but the primitive fashion of the dwellings is independent of the use of stone.
Botany.
The provinces that compose the kingdom of Shoa enjoy not only political but also natural and physical boundaries. From the luxuriant vegetation, or the parched-up desert of a tropical clime, we suddenly ascend to regions where the blessings of fertility are more equably diffused, and which serve as granaries to the inhabitants of the lowlands.
From the general nature of the rocks, it is obvious that the soil consists chiefly of decomposed feldspar, which requires abundance of water. Dews, rains, and springs, however, so moisten the mountain side, that artificial irrigation need be resorted to but on few localities. Along the foot of the hills, rude channels, dug out of the sandy or gravelly soil, conduct abundance of water to plantations at a distance from the river side; and, in these lower regions, periodical inundations supply the want of rain.—
It is an established fact, that the cryptogamic plants of cellular construction, are in different zones nearly the same. Under similar circumstances the same lichen covers the face of the rock in Europe as in the continents of the torrid zone, the same mould lines decaying matter, and the same fungus cleaves to bark and root. But, compared with the other orders of plants, the cellulars are most defective in numbers throughout Abyssinia, the peculiarities of the climate being very unfavourable to their development.
Every kind of parasitic plant is looked upon with a suspicious eye in Abyssinia; and those of the vascular orders furnish to the conjuring practitioner his principal remedies. But the mushrooms (Demastafi), the fungi and puff-balls (Ya arrogie siet phis), are believed to pollute the finger that touches them, and to be downright poison. Mould, of course, thrives exuberantly on every substance in so moist a climate as that of Shoa. The blight is but too well known; the Boletus igniarius grows abundantly in the forests; Parmeliae and other lichens cover rocks, or depend fantastically from the withered branches of gigantic trees. Mosses, however, are very scarce, and only of four kinds.
The vascular acotyledonic plants, the ferns, might likewise be expected in greater variety among the Abyssinian weeds than is actually the case. The deep recesses of the few remaining forests harbour some kinds which very closely resemble European forms, and belong to the genera Aspidium, Polypodium, Asplenium, Adiantum, Scolopendrium, Ophioglossum, and Pteris. No tree is among them, nor are the Abyssinians aware of the useful properties of the tribe. Adianthum Capillus Veneris is called in Amháric “Sera Besoo” i.e. much work—finely wrought.
Of the four orders into which the tribe of monocotyledonic plants is naturally subdivided, viz. the Grasses, the Lilies, the Orchides, and the Palms, the first undoubtedly deserves our principal attention, for it is by far the most numerous and important. The great elevation of the Abyssinian plains is so favourable for the cultivation of all Cerealia of the temperate zone, that they may rival the very best agricultural districts of Northern Europe, whilst the low country along the foot of the mountains produces some kinds of tropical grain, and would fully answer for the cultivation of rice, which at present is unknown in the country.
The Abyssinian husbandman takes great trouble in improving the cultivated sorts of grain, by changing the seed-corn at every season, and sometimes by sowing promiscuously different sorts to produce new varieties. Hence the astonishing number of distinguishable kinds cultivated in a small compass of ground under certain established appellations, and brought into use for very different purposes. Within a circumference of five miles around Ankóber are found, of juwarree, 28 varieties; of wheat, 24; of barley, 16; of rye, 2; of teff, 4; of oats, 2; of maize, 2. Various kinds of bread and cakes are prepared from some of these; malt for beer is chosen from others; and the inferior kinds are given to slaves and cattle.
The existing meadow-grasses answer so well, that an introduction of new species, or a regular culture, is not attempted. In times of great famine the seeds of some of these grasses come into use as food. In the swamps and humid meadows, and in many rivulets, species of Cyperus and Scirpus are very frequent, some of which attain immense height, being used for thatching, or in the manufacture of baskets, mats, etc. Papyrus also grows in the low countries of Efát.
The following species of grasses and grain are cultivated: Lorghum vulgare (Mashila), the Juwarree of India, and Durrha of Arabia, in many varieties, the principal of which are: a (Sengada), with red spreading spike; b (Wogari), with yellow, compact pendent spike. The young stalks contain a great deal of saccharine, and are chewed: they attain, in good situations, the enormous height of eighteen feet. The produce of Efát and Giddem in this grain is chiefly exported to the countries of the Ada?el; but a small quantity comes to the Shoan marts for inferior kinds of beer, unleavened bread, and the food of mules. In Shoa itself Mashila cannot be raised on account of the low temperature.
Saccharum officinarum, the sugar-cane (Shonkar), is also planted to a small extent in the low country. The art of making sugar being unknown, it is only chewed; and although regarded a great luxury, and sent in token of friendship by the great, no particular care is bestowed upon improving its growth.
Elusine Tocussa (Dagusa), a minute grain in quarternaire crosswise disposed spikes, is produced on a low grass extensively cultivated in Northern Abyssinia; and the Emperor of Gondar is said to be forced by etiquette to eat cakes of it, to the exclusion of other farinaceous food.
Poa Abyssinica (Teff). This millet-like seed is a favourite with all Abyssinians, although the bread made of it is extremely unwholesome and insipid. Four varieties are found, two of a brown, and two of a white kind. The latter has the preference; and the finest, called Manya Teff, is grown only upon the king’s fields, and can never be purchased by the subject. The straw of the Teff is regarded the best stable-fodder.
Zea Maize (Mar Mashila), i.e. Honey-sweet Mashila, is principally eaten when fresh and milky. A little roasted it is a most acceptable offering to the visitor. Sixteen kinds of barley (Geps) are raised on the hill-tops, and on the high plateau of the Galla country, where neither juwarree nor wheat will thrive. Its greatest consumption is in brewing, but mules and horses are also fed on it, and the finer sorts are eaten (Mariam Sahr Litch Alkuso Sandarash). Barya Settat, i.e. “the slaves’ portion,” as might be imagined, is not of first-rate quality.
Secale cereale (Damash Sanaf Kolo) finds a limited consumption, mixed with other flour in bread.
Triticum aestivum, hibernum, etc. (Sendi). Shoa can boast of twenty-four varieties of wheat. Many of these were originally cultivated by the Galla, and subsequently introduced. The other provinces of Abyssinia have also furnished various kinds; but the most esteemed are indigenous, viz. Y’abuna ehel, Ya beri mangada, Ya gosh gumbar, i.e. “Aboon’s grain;” “bullock’s molar tooth;” “buffaloes’ forehead.” Wheat is frequently eaten unground, in a mixture of parched grain, called Kolo, which is the only store carried by the Amhára warrior into the field.
Avena spec. (Gherama) is a small kind of oats, sown on the poorest fields, in order that favourite mules and horses may crop it while yet green. In times of scarcity the poor are compelled to resort to it.
Bambusa arundinacea (Shemal). The bamboo is not indigenous in any part of the country, but groves are planted on the king’s grounds, in order to supply poles for the royal tents.
The following are the grasses found in every pasture:—Lolium temulentum (Enkerdad), much dreaded as poison; Chloris spec. (Agerma); Andropogon distachyum (Gasha); Anthistiria spec. (Sambalet); Sporobolus spec. (Ya teff sahr) the seeds eaten as those of the teff; Poa brizoides (Ya Kiri sahr); Kiri is a species of finch, which eats the small seeds; Setaria spec. (Ya oosha Sendado).
The next order, that of the Lilies, is not so numerous as might be expected of Africa, but when a species does appear, it covers vast tracts with its lovely colours. None but the edible kinds of Allium are cultivated in Abyssinia, ornamental gardens being quite unknown throughout the country. Some grow in swampy meadows, especially those with bulbs, more properly ranking as lilies: others, with perennial stem, are found on dry waste places, such as the Asparagus and the Aloe. The whole year round, the meads are graced by the lovely blossoms of two Commelineae, viz. Commelina Africana, and Tradescantia spec. Both having small oval tubers, they are called Off angoon and Off gola, i.e. “bird’s egg” (off, a bird; angoon and gola, or more commonly angola, an egg). These tubers are eaten in times of famine. One ixia, a very beautiful kind, of the morasses around Angollála, springs up immediately after the termination of the rains. Haemanthus coccineus, Amaryllis clavata, Gloriosa spec, are rare plants of Efát; Bulbocodium spec, is a very transient form, observable a few days after the “rains of Bounty.” Onions and garlic (Neitch Shongort) are favourite vegetables; various kinds of Aloe (Ya jib Shongort) adorn the wastes of Efát, and furnish good fibres for making ropes. Asparagus retrofractus (Saréti), and Asparagus Ethiopicus (Kastanitcha), are fructiferous and climbing shrubs: a green twig of the first, stuck in the hair of the sinciput, is a token of exultation after a successful encounter with an enemy or wild beast; the wood of the second is of peculiar hardness, and splitting well serves the Amhára scribe as a pen. Lastly, one Smilax (Ashkila) affords the stick in common use as a tooth-brush.
That equally beautiful and important order, the Orchideae, might be supposed to find its natural ground in Abyssinia, where both atmosphere and soil are so favourable; but ginger is still imported from Guráguê: arrow-root and salep are unknown, and not a single kind of the respective genera is an inhabitant either of Shoa or Efát. The real Orchideae of the forests, moreover, are few in number. Epidendrum capense, cleaving to the bark of the wild olive-tree, is the only representative of that interesting group, the Epidendreae. Of the plantain tribe, three species have been introduced from the south, but apparently with little advantage; viz. Mooz, Musa paradisiaca, a coarse kind of plantain, which is reared on some few spots in Efát for the royal table, and two species of Urania, called Ensete and Koba. These are planted in Shoa for the sake of their leaves; they seldom advance to flower and fruit, in consequence of the low temperature. The only visible difference between them is, that in the Koba the middle rib of the leaf is on the underside red, as also the stem; whilst in the Ensete both are light green. Either of these trees, when suffered to grow, attains a height of twelve feet in the stem, exceeding by far that of the Mooz; the leaves are equal in size to those of the latter, and are only used to bake bread upon. Their proper home is Guráguê, the famous seat of so many botanical riches. Seed-capsules of the Koba brought from that country contain four or five angular nuts, full of a mealy substance, like the finest arrow-root, which is boiled and given to children to make them grow; the base of the fruit is filled with a delicious pulp like that of the plantain. In Guráguê the young shoots of the Ensete form a principal part of the diet, but they are despised by the Amhára, who are not at all addicted to vegetables. The fibres are used in the manufacture of ropes and mats, which form an important article of trade with Shoa. Ensete and Koba are hardier than the Mooz; and towering above the enclosures of the lofty villages, impart an aspect not properly belonging to the landscape, and strangely contrasting with many alpine associates.
The Palms of the continents of the eastern world are, with very few exceptions, inhabitants of the sea-borders, and do not thrive at any considerable elevation or even distance inland. The coast of the Ada?el is therefore the only locality where three species of this tribe, viz. Phoenix dactylifera, Hyphaene crucifera, and Borassus flabelliformis, appear; but so scantily, that the date must be imported from Arabia. Baskets and mats are manufactured of the leaves of all, and some toddy is prepared of the Borassus especially.
The preceding enumeration of acotyledonic and monocotyledonic plants is not sufficient to determine the systematic place due to the Abyssinian vegetation in general. The Dicotyledones, comprising two-thirds of all the plants, will necessarily help to show, that although included within the tropics, the Flora of Shoa, and of some of the Galla provinces to the west, is, on the whole, subalpine. The avenues of approach to them from the eastward, evince in their scanty dress the influence of a tropical sun; and between these two extremes, a happy and most fertile province intervenes, where, by the side of the hardy grain, cotton and coffee may be raised—where a tea-plant and many species of indigo grow wild—and where, in fact, a temperate and a torrid clime exchange their products as it were upon neutral ground.
The Chlamydoblasta number but very few species in Abyssinia. One Nymphaae only, on the lakes of Shoa, and one Aristolochia (bracteata) of the Ada?el country, could be discovered. This latter, called Gerbaad, is a secret remedy with the Danákil against poisoned wounds, and in fact they are prone to attribute mysterious qualities to the most of their weeds. Pepper is not found either in a wild or cultivated state, although nothing would oppose the introduction of that favourite condiment, which at present, under the appellation of Gunda Berberi (Gunda, an ant; Berberi, hot spice) is imported from Arabia and India.
Of apetalous Gymnoblasts, some important species are to be recorded, since they form the chief pride of the forests. And justly beginning with the Coniferae, the fir (cedar), which graces the Alps of Northern Abyssinia, is replaced in Shoa by a gigantic juniper, Juniperus excelsa (Det). This noble tree of the woods as well as of the churchyards attains in its life of one century a height of upwards of one hundred and sixty feet, with four to five in diameter at the base. Growing nearly in the shape of a cypress, it throws off continually the lower branches, which shoot out almost at a right angle from the stem, so that two-thirds of the same are void of green; the top is always a pyramid, and generally scanty. The wood is very inferior, but splitting readily, it supplies, in the absence of proper carpenters’ tools, the chief timber used in the construction of huts and churches; and it forms, besides, the common fuel. Neither is any use made of the resin or berries; but twigs lopped off the melancholy trees that overshadow the cemetery, are often strewn upon the corpse before the grave is filled up. A yew tree, Taxus elongata, Sigba, also of the Shoan forests, keeps within more moderate dimensions; sixty feet in height, and five in circumference, is the utmost. The tough wood, like that of the wild olive-tree, furnishes the timber for works of art which are to last some time. To tarry beneath its shade, or to inhale the smoke of burning yew wood, is regarded as particularly noxious.
The low temperature reigning in the Alps of Abyssinia does not prohibit the growth of a species of fig, which contrasts strangely enough with the tall juniper. The Shoala, a kind of Banyan tree, with large, oval, acute, serrated, and subcordate leaves, and racemes of fruits attached only to the stem and principal branches, measures frequently seven feet in diameter, with a height of forty feet, at an age of two-score years. Its roots are partly above ground; but of secondary, or branch-roots, there is no vestige. Requiring no small space for expansion, it stands commonly on the outskirts of the forests, or quite alone, but its shade is extremely dense and unfavourable to other vegetation. The fruit, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, brown and insipid, might be eaten by people in distress. In the low country the Sycamore Fig-tree makes its appearance; it is called Worka, i.e. “the Golden,” by the Amhára, and Woda by the Galla; and has, with those of the latter nation, who are still in the bonds of idolatry, a sacred signification. Being planted over the tombs of notable persons, conjurers, or heroes, offerings are brought to it, and hung up on the branches at certain festivals, when the neighbouring tribes feast together upon that holy and neutral ground. The Worka stands always near running water, towering far over the jungle, although the undivided stem is scarcely ten feet high. The leaf has a yellow tomentum below; and the fruit forms a favourite food of monkeys and of various birds, but is not touched by man.
The Kuaraf, Gunnera spec, another plant of the same family, of Artocarpeae, is an important vegetable during the strict fast of Lent. It grows in swamps and rivulets, and is an annual low plant from a perennial root, with large radical leaves and a leafless stalk, bearing the minute flowers on a bunchy raceme. The petioles, ribs of leaves, and stalks, are eaten fresh when stripped of the epidermis; and their taste is similar to that of the sorrel. The common stinging-nettle (Sama) is, by boiling, also prepared into an indifferent food during the quadragesimal low diet. The troublesome weed grows everywhere to a height of five feet.
Of the many Polygoneae, a few must be noticed on account of their frequent occurrence and of their use. Polygonum tomentosum (Ba Waha lay, i.e. “upon the water,”) and Polygonum serratum, cover the margins of morasses and lakes. Polygonum frutescens (Umboatoo) is the most common hedge-shrub. Rumex arifolius (Makmako), frequent in swampy meadows, yields, in its fleshy root, a reddish dye for colouring butter. The root of another species of Rumex, called Tutt, is believed to be a nostrum for barbarous and criminal purposes; but, happily, it is quite innocent. Instead of these species, which all belong to the Flora of Shoa, there appear in the Adel country several Boerhaaviae. Introduced into Shoa is a kind of willow (Aheia), much employed in the manufacture of saddles.
The monopetalous Gymnoblasts, being a class next to the highest and most important, contain a large number of plants, of which the following are pointed out: Plantago Capensis (Ya gura wosfi), and Plantago Egyptiaca (Burrh), both common weeds in Shoa; Plumbago Capensis, with large white corolla, in Efát, and Scabiosa decurrens (Adai), with snowy heads, in Shoa, are highly ornamental; Echinops horridus, growing to the height of ten feet about Angollála; Carthamus tinctorius (Suf), extensively cultivated in Efát for the oil of the seeds and for the dye yielded by the flowers; Carduncellus spec. (Dorakus),—a decoction of the dried flower-heads is administered in ague. Several twining species of Mikania adorn the forests of Shoa; two fructiferous Cacaliae, full of a balsamic sap, and one Klenia, exhibit the brightest scarlet in the jungles of Efát. Pteronia spinosa, and Helichrysum vestitum, are hardy shrubs found on the slopes. Species of Gnaphalium and Bidens are annoying weeds in the cotton-fields. The numerous kinds of Radiatae contain only one of importance, viz. the Polymnia Abyssinica (Nug), which is the chief oil plant. Suf and Nug oil mixed is called Kabanug, and only used for burning, since it possesses strong purging qualities. The family of the Compositae furnishes altogether but a small number of useful plants in proportion to its extensiveness.
The Campanulaceae are low annual insignificant weeds, one Lobelia excepted, viz. the Rhynchopetalum montanum, or Jibera. This strange perennial plant, with the aspect of a palm-tree, grows chiefly in moist ravines among the high mountains, and is especially frequent about Ankóber. The stem attains upwards of fifteen feet in height, and five inches in diameter. The top carries a crown of large leaves; and the spike is one foot and a half long. When the seeds are ripe, the plant dies suddenly. One Erica (Asta), five feet in height, assists likewise to dispel the aspect of a European Flora, which is conveyed by the Veronica Beccabunga and Anagallis of the meadow rivulets. Scrophularia frutescens (Djodjo), with a strong smell of camphor, is used as a febrifuge and charm; two kinds of Orobanche are also among the conjurer’s infallible medicines. Acanthus carduifolius is the choicest camel-fodder in the desert. Rare specimens of Hyperanthera Moringa, the same as in Arabia, stand near the pools of the low country: a gum, becoming instantly red in the air, flows freely out of any bruise, but is applied to no use. Mint, thyme, and other plants of the family Labiatae, so replete with aetheric oils, do not enjoy the reputation due to them. Of the many kinds only three have names and use, viz. Origanum spec. (Kassi), and Ziziphora spec. (Lomi shett, i.e. “lime-smell”), which are used in the fomentation of boils; Leonotis spec. (Ras Kimr), as anthelminthicum by a decoction of the dried leaves, mixed with a little oil. Several Convolvulaceae and Boragineae pass disregarded. Of the former. Convolvulus pes caprae binds the sand of the sea-beach; of the latter, a few specimens of Cordia Abyssinica (Wanzey) grow in Efát.
Capsicum frutescens (Geich Berberi, i.e. “red pepper”), the most important of hot spices in warm climes, and Nicotiana Tabacum (Tombako), also an indispensable commodity to many of the Moslem population, are objects of diligent cultivation in the lower country: yet the only tolerable tobacco must be imported from the Ittoo Galla. Solanum marginatum (Umboi), a shrub, the seeds of which are strewed on the surface of ponds to stupify the fish, which are nevertheless still eatable, and Atropa arborea (Amoraroo), the red juice of whose berry is used by the Amhára women to stain their palms and nails, are common hedge-shrubs in Shoa. Of the narcotic qualities of the Datura Stramonium (Atafaris), the Abyssinian sorcerer is well aware. The thief-detector makes a youth smoke the dried leaves of it in order to cause stupefaction, and thus promote the semblance of powers of divination. Neither the potato nor any other edible kind of Solanum has yet been introduced into Shoa.
The families of Contortae, Rubiaceae, Ligustrinae, have many representatives in the low country. Stapelia pulvinata and Calotropis gigantea are the most prominent: the former has a fleshy, quadrangular, and four-winged stem of two feet height, and when in flower is scarcely approachable; the latter furnishes good charcoal for gunpowder. Kannahia laniflora, with particularly sweet-smelling flowers, lines the borders of the rivulets in Efát; Carissa spec. (Agame) has edible berries, and flourishes both in Efát and Shoa. Melanea verticillata (Adguar), is a jungle-tree of ten feet height, with purging berries. Psychotria spec. (Doda Gula), is a shrub found in Shoa; Coffea Arabica (Boon) grows wild in many of the warmer provinces, but is diligently plucked out by the Christian population, who consider the use of the berry to be as foreign to salvation as the doctrine of the false prophet. Where his followers abide in greater numbers, or uncontrolled, as in Giddem and in the countries of the Ittoo and Aroosi Galla, the coffee-tree grows unmolested, no care, however, being taken of it; but its proper home seems to lie far to the west and south, in the kingdoms of Cáffa and Enárea, where a donkey’s load is sold for the twentieth part of a dollar. Two kinds of jessamine grace with their fragrant flowers the hedges and groves. Olea spec. (Woira) is, with the juniper and yew, the principal forest-tree of Shoa; sixty to eighty feet in height, and four in diameter, are its common dimensions. The wood of the wild olive-tree affords excellent fuel and timber; but no use is made of the fruit, which attains the size of a large pea.
Among the polypetalous Gymnoblasts, in which vegetation has attained the highest degree of perfection with respect to variety of shape and colour, as well as medical and nutritious qualities, we find several important families altogether wanting in the Flora of Abyssinia. The Pomaceae and Amygdaleae are absent, and the existing scarcity of fruit-trees, whether wild or cultivated, is indeed most apparent. Others of more limited utility are very numerous, as the Tricoccae, Rhocadeae, Amarantinae; but the Leguminosae form by far the largest family of polypetalous phanerogames.
Of Umbelliferae there exists in the low country one Ferula, a small tree of unknown properties. In Shoa there are several Caucalis (Karambashu), growing on pasture grounds, and poisonous to cattle. Coriandrum sativum (Dumbelan), and Anethum foeniculum, the well-known European spices, are cultivated. Berberis tinctoria of the forests yields a good yellow dye for mourning apparel. Clypea spec. (Engotshid), is a creeper with pellate leaves, upon which small cakes are baked. Ranunculus trilobus (Goodie) is a troublesome weed on the meadows. Nigella sativa (Asmud) is occasionally cultivated as a spice. Several species of Polygala flourish unnoticed. Some Balsamineae grow in shady places; one of them, Impatiens grandis (Girshid), has a tuberous root, with the juice of which the women paint their palms and faces red. Thlaspi bursa pastoris (Ya bug elat, i.e. “sheep’s tail”), the cosmopolitan weed, follows agriculture also in Abyssinia. Sinapis Nigra (Sanafitch) grows wild, and is sometimes resorted to as an additional ingredient of the pepper sauce called wotz. Brassica spec. (Goomun), a cultivated coarse kind of cow-cabbage, perennial, and five feet high, is eaten as a vegetable after much boiling; the seeds are also used for oil. Of the numerous Capparideae, Cadaba Indica is particularly important in the Adel desert, being for many scores of miles the only shrub which affords shelter from the noontide sun. Two species of Capparis make impenetrable hedges in Efát. Cucumis Africanus (Ya medur oomboi) is an annual plant, of sandy and desert places; the seeds are a favourite medicine in Shoa, and also with the Galla. Cucumis colocynthis is frequent in the valleys adjoining the Bahr Assal, but is not collected either for home use or for exportation. Cucurbita lagenaria (Kel) grows wild, and is cultivated in Efát for water-bottles. Cucurbita pepo, a common coarse pumpkin in Shoa, serves as a vegetable. Bryonia scabrella (Ya Amor a M’sa) is a much dreaded poison. Two species of Flacourtia, Koshim and Menedem, have edible berries.
Viola montana, a violet without smell, grows in the forests of Shoa. Tamaricinae occur in the desert, from the sea-shore as far as to the Háwash; the presence of the principal kind, called Sagan, is, to the Dankáli herdsman, a sure indication of water near the surface. The genus Hypericum has only showy plants. The Chenepodeae,—chiefly weeds, contain one species (called Amedmadoo) which is used for polishing metal. Achyranthes spec. (Talineh) is a styptic medicine. Phytolacca Abyssinica (Endott) is a common shrub in Shoa and Efát; a cold infusion of the dried and pounded berry possesses wonderful cleansing qualities, and is used instead of soap. Silene diantho?des (Siakul) is a pretty flower found on the high mountains. Calancho? verea (Endehahoola) is a very common succulent plant, the leaves of which are dried and smoked like tobacco in phthisical affections, or the juice of them administered as refrigerants in inflammatory fevers. Epilobium villosum (Ya lahm tchau, i.e. “cows’ salt”) is regarded as an excellent and wholesome fodder for homed cattle, if given occasionally Punica granatum (Rooma), sometimes cultivated in Efát, was introduced from Arabia. Several species of Grewia bear edible fruits in the desert, where their acidity is very grateful.
To the various kinds of Byttneriaceae and Malvaceae, no particular interest is attached, except to the cotton (Det) Gossypium Nigrum, which is cultivated in two varieties, the finer and smaller species growing in the shade of the taller and more hardy. Both are regarded as indigenous to Abyssinia. Grain and cotton-cloth form the principal staple commodities of Shoa. Linum usitatissimum (Tulbah) is cultivated merely for the seeds, of which oil is made: flax-dressing not being understood. Vitis vinifera (Woin Saf), planted as a curiosity in the king’s gardens, bears plentifully, and would doubtless answer well upon volcanic soil. Several species of Cissus interlace the jungles of Efát; one, especially, is a constant companion of the Camel-thorn Acacia in the desert.
Euphorbia Abyssinica (Kolqual), a singular sconce-like milk bush of the Abyssinian groves, gives charcoal for gunpowder; with the corrosive sap it is frequently attempted to stop ulcers of a phagedenic nature. The inspissated juice of two other species of Euphorbia, Birgut and Anderfa, serves as a drastic purgative. The ostrich-hunting Somauli poisons his arrows with the milk of Euphorbia antiquorum, which does not make the meat injurious. Ricinus Africanus (Gulo) affords in its seeds a famous medicine for cattle, and is frequent in Efát. Rhamnus spec. (Gesho) is a tonic, and a decoction of the leaves of this cultivated shrub is used in the manufacture of hydromel and beer instead of hops. Celastrus spec. (Chaat) is a species of the tea planted and used in Efát, but more extensively in Cáffa and other countries of the interior. In Efát the fresh leaves are both chewed and used as an astringent medicine, or taken in order to dispel sleep: a decoction in water or milk being also drunk as a beverage, which tastes bitter enough. Hagenia Abyssinica (Cosso) affords, in a cold infus............